Noun Cases
Noun cases are means or functions of how a noun is going to be used in conversation. Nowadays, there are two uses of noun cases: the Old English, consisting of five cases, and the Modern English which consists of three cases.
Old English Cases:
1. Nominative - The case of the noun is nominative if the noun or pronoun being referred to is the subject of the verb. This is where action or the verb is being done by the subject.
e.g.
Mike ran away.
I am working tomorrow.
The text in bold is the subject which is the nominative case of the underlined text that is the verb.
2. Objective - When there is a direct object representing the verb, the case would be objective.
e.g.
Chris saw a monkey.
I flipped a coin.
In this case, the underlined text is the direct object which represents the verb.
3. Dative - The dative case is just the same as the objective case except that the dative case contains an indirect object that represents the direct object.
e.g.
Triple H gave the Cleveland Cavaliers a customized WWE Championship belt.
The underlined text, the Cleveland Cavaliers, is the indirect object meaning that it is the receiver of the direct object that is the customized WWE Championship belt.
4. Possesssive - The possessive case denotes ownership and it contains an item of possession that represents the subject with an apostrophe.
e.g.
Robin's sword
Chris' food
The text in bold, in this case, is the item of possession that is represented with an apostrophe and an s. If the verb possessing the item ends with an s just like how Chris is mentioned, the apostrophe goes after the s and will directly be followed by the item of possession.
5. Vocative - The vocative case is used when there is someone being addressed to get the attention of the person being spoken to.
e.g.
David, your mother just called.
The bold text, David, is the vocative noun since he is the one being addressed. A comma after the person being addressed is important because without the comma, it would remove how directly David is being addressed.
Modern English Cases:
1. Subjective - In the subjective case, we can call it the same as the nominative case where the noun or pronoun is the subject of the verb.
e.g.
Jason quit the team.
2. Objective - In the modern English case, the noun would be objective if it has a direct object. It can still be objective even if it has an indirect object.
e.g.
Direct object without the indirect object:
Mr. Crews passed the torch.
Direct object with indirect object:
Mr. Crews passed the torch to his protege.
3. Possessive - Same as old English case, it also denotes ownership and the noun is represented by an apostrophe followed by an s except for when the noun ends with an s, then the item of possession would directly follow the apostrophe.
e.g.
Tim's cellphone
Carlos' shoes
Classifications of Nouns
1. Common Noun - These are categorized nouns that aren't specified. One example is that the word school is a category but it doesn't necessarily say which school is being determined. The word lawyer is also a category but it doesn't specify which lawyer is being talked about.
2. Proper Noun - Proper nouns are nouns being specified by a common noun. An example would be Green Day from the category of band or Leonardo DiCaprio who is specified from the category of actor.
3. Count Noun - These are nouns that can be counted. Count nouns can be singular or plural.
e.g.
an apple
five baskets
three boys
a fan
4. Non-count Noun - Also known as mass noun, these are nouns that cannot be counted and can only be singular or plural through measurement.
e.g.
a cup of coffee
three sacks of rice
a bottle of wine
two loaves of bread
5. Abstract Noun - These are nouns that are intangible or cannot be touched. Abstract nouns are most likely to be concepts.
e.g.
Justice will prevail.
The truth hurts.
Luck is on my side.
6. Concrete Noun - Simply, these are material nouns that can be touched.
e.g.
Give me back my watch.
The mirror is shining.
My computer's broken.
7. Collective Noun - It is a particular name used for a group of objects, animals, etc.
e.g.
a pride of lions
a school of sheep
a boquet of roses
Doing the same thing makes a collective noun singular while doing different things makes a collective noun plural.
e.g.
The class are taking notes, answering problems, and participating actively.
The band is rehearsing for tomorrow's gig.
8. Compound Noun - It is a noun consisting of 2 or more nouns.
e.g.
text + book = textbook
slot + machine = slot machine
electric + wheel + chair = electric wheelchair
9. Material Noun - This refers to substances in which things are made of.
e.g.
silk dress
silver coin
plastic cup
10. Gender-specific noun - This noun denotes masculinity and femininity of the noun.
Types of gender-specific noun:
Masculine noun - Used to specify the male gender
e.g.
God, save our king.
Feminine noun - Used to specify the female gender
e.g.
The mistress is not pleased with how his employee cooked breakfast.
Neuter noun - Denotes genderless objects
e.g.
Please carry my bag for me.
Regular and Irregular Nouns
Regular nouns are nouns that are pluralized simply by adding -s (or -es). There are rules that should be followed depending on what letter the word ends with.
Irregular nouns are nouns that are pluralized in other ways than adding -s (or -es). The rules used in irregular nouns do not follow the rules in regular nouns.
Regular Nouns
Singular Plural
Last letter(s) of the word Capitalization
consonants except -s or f add -s
s, ch, sh, z, x add -es
vowel + y add -s
consonant + y replace -y with -i and add -es
Irregular Nouns
Singular Plural
words ending with o add -s
words ending with f replace -f with -v and add -es
Apophonic plurals - These refer to irregular nouns that are not pluralized based on the letter the word ends with.
e.g. foot - feet
More Irregular Plurals:
us - i = alumnus - alumni, nucleus - nuclei
is - es = axis - axes, hypothesis - hypotheses
ix - ices = appendix - appendices, index - indeces/indexes
eau - eaux = beau - beaux, bureau - bureaux
*** - en = man - men, woman - women
um - a = datum - data, bacterium - bacteria
no change = deer - deer, fish - fish, series - series
a - ae = antenna - antennae/antennas, vertebra - vertebrae
ouse - ice = mouse - mice, louse - lice
Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used to represent as a substitution for a noun or a verb.
Personal Pronoun
It is a pronoun used to represent a specific person.
Cases of pronouns:
Nominative Case - It is used when the pronoun is the subject of the verb.
e.g.
I will kill you.
He is that easy to fool.
Genetive Case - This case refers to possession of an object.
e.g.
Can I have your bread?
That's my boy.
Objective Case - It is used when the pronoun is the object of the verb.
Singular Personal Pronouns:
Nominative
|
Genetive
|
Objective
|
|
1st person
|
I
|
My, Mine
|
Me
|
2nd person
|
You
|
Your, Yours
|
You
|
3rd person:
|
|||
Masculine
|
He
|
His
|
Him
|
Feminine
|
She
|
Her, Hers
|
Her
|
Neuter
|
It
|
Its
|
It
|
Plural Personal Pronouns:
Nominative
|
Genetive
|
Objective
|
|
1st person
|
We
|
Our, Ours
|
Us
|
2nd person
|
You
|
Your, Yours
|
You
|
3rd person
|
|||
(all genders)
|
They
|
Their, Theirs
|
Them
|
Indefinite Pronoun
This type of pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing, or amount.
e.g.
Is anybody home?
There are so many options to choose from.
Nothing was found in the fridge.
Demonstrative Pronoun
This pronoun represents a direct object/s.
Near in distance or time:
This, These
e.g.
This game is too challenging for me.
You can have these glasses if you want.
Far in distance or time:
That, Those
e.g.
You know, that idea of yours was boring.
Those clothes at the mall were expensive.
Interrogative Pronoun
This pronoun is used in order to ask a question. It consists of the wh questions: What, Who, When, Where, Why, and How.
e.g.
Who is responsible for this mess?
What is your problem with me?
Reciprocal Pronoun
This pronoun indicates that two or more people are carrying out an action of some type. Each other and one another are the used pronouns.
e.g.
Simon and Ryan are teasing each other playfully.
I wish that their classes would start caring for one another soon.
Relative Pronoun
This pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. The five pronouns used are who, whom, whose, which, and that.
e.g.
The murderer is the same person who killed your father.
I need something that will help me with my work.
Reflexive Pronoun
This refers back to the sentence of the sentence or clause. It either ends with -self or -selves.
I'm not helping you. You have to do it, yourself.
The bands, themselves are responsible for the musical piece.
Intensive Pronoun
This pronoun uses reflexive pronouns to add emphasis to the subject of the sentence.
e.g.
I am making myself coffee.
You should do yourself a favor and work harder.
Verb
It is a word that describes an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.e.g.
She dances.
Transitive Verb
These are action verbs that require a direct object to complete its meaning.
e.g.
I cleaned our yard.
My father washed the dishes.
Intransitive Verb
These verbs do not require a direct object to its action verb but it can be followed by a complement.
e.g.
My sister smokes.
Your mother was calling last night.
Linking Verb
This verb connects the subject to the sentence and/or describes the state of being.
e.g.
I feel close.
Squidward smells good.
Dynamic Verb
These are action verbs.
Types of dynamic verb:
Action - This verb represents an action.
e.g.
Chris is playing basketball.
Process - This verb refers to a process.
e.g.
The ice was melting.
Momentary action - This refers to an action happening again and again.
e.g.
The boxers are constantly hitting each other.
Our clock is ticking.
Stative Verb
This verb refers to actions that are static or not changing.
Types of stative verb:
Perception - This verb refers to a person's state of mind
e.g.
I hate you.
Relation - This verb indicates relation between nouns.
e.g.
Mike owns the restaurant.
Finite Verb
This verb has definite relation with subject or noun.
e.g.
She walks home.
Non-finite Verb
This refers to action used as noun
e.g.
Teaching sure is hard work.
Regular and Irregular Verbs
Other than their past forms being different in form, the difference between regular and irregular verbs is that regular verb conforms to the pattern of the tenses while irregular verb has no definite pattern.
e.g.
Infinitives
|
Simple Present
|
Simple Past
|
Past Participle
|
Present Participle
|
|
Regular Verb
|
To laugh
|
Laugh
|
Laughed
|
Laughed
|
Laughing
|
Irregular Verb
|
To drive
|
Drive
|
Drove
|
Driven
|
Driving
|
Verb Tenses
Tense
It refers to the time of the action or the state of being.
Present Tense
It is used for the expression of a number of other types of temporal as well as non-temporal situations.
Present Tense Form:
Base form of the verb + s/es in 3rd person
e.g.
start + s = starts
pass + es = passes
Past Tense
It indicates that an action or condition took place at some definite time in the past.
Past Tense Form:
- Base form of the verb + d/ed
- Irregular Verbs
e.g.
dance + d = danced
open + ed = opened
eat - ate
wear - wore
Future Tense
It indicates that an action will take place in the future.
Future Tense Form:
- will + verb
- am/is/are + going to + verb
e.g.
will + sing = will sing
is + going to + cook = is going to cook
Aspect
It refers to how an action occurs.
Progressive Aspect
Past: was/were + present participle; e.g. was + drinking = was drinking
Present: is/are + present participle; e.g. is + cleaning = is cleaning
Future: will be + present participle; e.g. will be + playing = will be playing
Perfect Progressive Aspect
Past: had + been + present participle; e.g. had + been + talking = had been talking
Present: has/have + been + present participle; e.g. have + been + thinking = have been thinking
Future: will have + been + present participle; e.g. will have + been + eating = will have been eating
Simple Aspect
It states whether or not an action occurs. The aspect focuses on completion of the action.
Present Simple Aspect
e.g.
It usually rains in fall.
He smokes about 13 cigarettes a day.
Past Simple Aspect
e.g.
I slept for a long time yesterday.
Future Simple Aspect
e.g.
She will come over to our place later.
Perfect Aspect
It states an action that happened before a time.
Form:
has
have + past participle
had
will have
e.g.
I have seen that movie.
She had done nothing wrong.
Donald Trump will have been sitting in the White House next year.
Voice
It is a form of the verb that shows the domination of a subject or an object
Active Voice
It is when the subject of a sentence is the one doing the action.
e.g.
The girl ate the cake.
Passive Voice
It is when the subject of the sentence is not the one doing the action.
e.g.
The cake was eaten by the girl.
Mood
It is an indication of the speaker's attitude towards what he/she is talking about.
- Indicative - facts, e.g. The Boston Celtics are the 2008 NBA Champions.
- Imperative - questions, e.g. Are you gonna quit your job?
- Subjunctive - doubt, request, regret, wish, demand, or proposal, e.g. I wish he can work as fast as you.
- Infinitive - state of being or action, e.g. I'm going to the concert tonight.
Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase which consists of a verb and an adverb or a preposition.
Sample Phrasal Verbs:
for travelling:
set off - start a journey
hold up - delay when travelling
get in - arrive
for family:
grow up - to become more mature
look up - to respect or admire
look after - to take care of someone
for telephone:
cut off - to interrupt a telephone conversation
hang on - wait for a short time
pick up - answer an incoming call
Subject-verb agreement
General agreement principle
A predicate must agree in number and person with the simple subject.
Rule 1
A subject will come before a phrase beginning with 'of'. This is a key rule for understanding subjects.
Rule 2
The verb in an or, either/ or, neither/ nor agrees with the noun/pronoun closest to it.
Rule 3
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Rule 4
The predicate of a clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun agrees with the antecedent of that pronoun, not with the relative pronoun itself.
Exception 1 - combinations
Exception 2 - indefinite pronoun modification
Rule 5
Titles should be used with a singular verb.
Rule 6
With words that indicate portions, rule 1 is reversed.
Rule 7
In sentences beginning with here and there, the true subject follows the verb.
Rule 8
Use a singular verb with words that act as a unit.
Rule 9
Some collective noun may take either a singular or a plural verb depending on their sentence.
Rule 10
The word 'were' replaces was in sentences that are in subjunctive mood.
Verbals
A verbal is a verb form which functions as a noun or an adjective.
Gerund
Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns.
e.g.
Swimming in my friend's pool was a big mistake.
Running around the school will be the punishment.
Participles
A participle is a word formed from a verb which can be used as an adjective. The two types of participles are the present participle and the past participle.
Participle Phrases
It is common to see participles in participle phrases. A participle phrase also acts as an adjective.
-The man carrying the bricks is my father.
-She showed us a plate of scones crammed with cream.
Present Participles - participles ending in -ing
-A laughing man is stronger than a suffering man
-The only thing that comes to a sleeping man is dreams.
Past Participles - participles having various past tense endings
-broken window
-painted frame
-destroyed bridge
Perfect Participles = having + past participle
-having taken
-having eaten
-having played
Infinitives
Infinitive will almost always begin with to- followed by the simple form of the verb. They can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
e.g.
To sleep is the only thing Eli wants.
Kevin refuses to listen.
Wherever Melissa goes, she always brings a book to read.
Modals
It is a type of verb used to express ability,possibility, permission, or obligation andused to indicate modality.
Commonly used modals:
1. can
2. could
3. may
4. might
Auxiliary Verbs
are also called helping verbs as they help the main verb denote the actions of the subject.
Be - is auxiliary because it is followed by another verb and it is used in different aspects.
e.g.
He is playing football.
He was playing football.
He has been playing football.
He had been playing football.
'be' as a full verb - It's not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions.
e.g.
They are six years old.
They are not six years old.
Are they six years old?
Have - can be used as an auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary, we use this verb to form compund tenses in active and passive voice
e.g.
She has baked a cake.
She had baked a cake.
She had been baking a cake.
Do - The helping verb 'do' can also act as a full verb only in positive sentences. When do is used in a negative sentence, it is an auxiliary verb. The helping verb 'do' is also used to make questions for most verbs except other auxiliary verbs and the modal verbs.
e.g.
She does not play volleyball.
She did not play volleyball.
Does she play volleyball?
Did she play volleyball?
Adverb
It is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adveb.
Adverbs:
Adverb of time - answers 'when'
e.g. today, last night, tomorrow, etc.
Adverb of place - answers 'where'
e.g. outside, away, in my house, etc.
Adverb of manner - answers 'how'
e.g. quickly, carefully, etc.
Adverb of degree - information about extent
e.g. very, quite, almost, etc.
Adverb of frequency - expresses how often
e.g. usually, always, never, etc.
Adverb of probability - refers to certainty
e.g. probably, truly, perhaps, etc.
Adverbial
It is a word or a group of words that modifies or tells something about the sentence of the verb.
Adverbial Phrase
It is an adverb made from more than one word.
e.g.
I ate a sandwich last night.
Sentence Adverbials/ Fronted Adverbials
It is an adverb or adverbial phrase that often appears at the beginning of the sentence.
e.g.
After last night, I learned my lesson.
Adverbial Clause
It is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb.
e.g.
My brother came late last night.
